Faculty
Technology Mentoring Programs: Major Trends in the Literature
Hsueh-Hua Chuang
Center for Technology in
Learning and Teaching
Iowa State University
United States
Ann Thompson
Center for Technology in
Learning and Teaching
Iowa State University
United States
Denise Schmidt
Center for Technology in
Learning and Teaching
Iowa State University
United States
Abstract: This paper
provides an extensive review of the literature that documents technology
mentoring models used in higher education and K-12 schools. Various mentoring
models from teacher education programs and K-12 schools are described. After
summarizing the mentoring models, a description of commonalties found among
these mentoring programs are shared. Despite the variety of technology
mentoring models, effective programs include common elements. These elements
include providing visions for technology use, individualizing technology
support, breaking down hierarchical structure, establishing open dialogue and
collaborative relationships, and providing mutual benefits for mentors and
mentees.
The effectiveness of technology in school settings relies on how
successfully teachers integrate technology with their educational purposes and
curricula (MacArthur & Malouf, 1991).
In the 21st century, emphasis on technology has increased and
the demand for technologically literate teachers has been on the rise as well
(Ely et al,1996). To adequately
prepare teachers, teacher preparation institutions need to equip faculty so
they can effectively model technology use and integration strategies in their
courses (Munday et al, 1991).
Many teacher education institutions have identified the need for
faculty development in the area of technology use and integration. While many colleges of education
require one stand-alone technology course, few teacher education programs have
faculty who are modeling instructional methods that integrate computer
technology in the classrooms (Handler & Marshal, 1992; OTA 1995). According to Staman(1990) and Wetzel
(1993), faculty identified lack of knowledge about software, schedule
conflicts, limited vision of technology integration, and lack of administrative
support as obstacles to effectively integrate technology into their
curricula. A survey conducted by
Carlson & Gooden (1999) to understand how the professors of preservice
teachers modeled the use of technology found that only word processing was used
consistently on a regular basis.
Growing out of this urgent need to model effective technology
integration in teacher education, several institutions have adopted one-on-one
technology mentoring programs to better meet the specific needs of each faculty
member. Prior research has shown that one-shot workshops without on-going
individual technology support often fail to meet the specific needs of most
educators; instead, one-on-one technology mentoring models show promising
results on faculty professional development in terms of developing technology
integrated curriculum (Thompson et al, 1996; Beisser, 2000).
This paper examines the literature on technology mentoring models used
in higher education and K-12 schools to look for commonalties among successful
mentoring programs. In addition, the paper summarizes similarities found among
the models and identifies themes that are emerging from research on these
models. This review will provide opportunities to learn from others the key
elements in successful mentoring programs.
Based on the challenge of offering appropriate high-quality
professional development experiences for faculty, several higher education
institutions have developed mentoring models that pair faculty members or
teachers with someone who has technology background. Various mentoring models have been
adopted based on institutions’ emphases on how to enhance technology
integration throughout a teacher education program or K-12 curriculum. Some models offer multiple intensive
training of guided lessons on particular software packages followed by
one-on-one mentoring support.
Other models include a graduate or undergraduate course in which the
field work assignment involves pairing students with faculty members interested
in using technology in their courses.
This type of mentoring model has also been extended to the K-12
environment where the focus has been on overcoming barriers to technology use
in the classroom. Almost all of
these models have included a younger adult as mentor as opposed to the
traditional “hierarchical transfer of knowledge and information from an older,
more experienced person to a younger less experienced person” (Zachary, 2001,
p. 1).
Different types of mentoring models are described in the sections that follow to provide an overview of mentoring partnerships. The mentoring relationship provides professional development support along with the opportunities to model technology integration throughout the curriculum.
The Graduate School of Education at George Mason University, through
Instructional Technology program, offered a similar course. Before beginning their mentoring
experience, graduate students enrolled in “ Faculty Development in
Instructional Technology.” Efforts
were made to pair students’ technology abilities with faculty member’s desired
skills. Graduate students worked
with the faculty members as the faculty became comfortable with technology and
began to develop materials to be used in courses. Based on that more than one
semester of assistance is needed and faculty members have expressed interest in
participating in this project, plans are being made to continue connecting
one-on-one mentoring with an existing course (Sprague et al, 1998).
New Mexico State University College of Education initiated a pilot
faculty mentoring program in 1996. Five volunteer faculty members and five graduate
students were matched by area of interest and technology expertise. Students
met with their faculty mentees and received graduate credits as part of an
internship course. Graduate students also met with the project director every
other week for investigation of software and solutions to faculty’s questions.
(Gonzales et al, 1997; Gonzales & Thompson 1998).
Instead of offering course credits, the University of New Mexico
College of Education hired graduate students as Tech Guides for one-on-one support
in helping faculty gain computer knowledge. In addition, these Tech Guides were
available to present technology integration lessons in methods courses. Each
Tech Guide was assigned five faculty members and worked intensively with them
on an individual basis one or two hours per week. Results indicated that
faculty members began to acquire technology application skills and to integrate
technology with the support from the Tech Guides (Bramble, 2000).
Another mentoring program involved special education graduate students
who served as technology mentors for part of their graduate assistantship in a
large mid-western university.
Nineteen faculty members and nine graduate students were selected in
this eight-week pilot program.
Graduate students received two sessions of intensive training on using
PowerPoint prior to their mentoring activities. The first session sought to introduce graduate students to
the software applications. The
second session was designed to familiarize graduate students with further
PowerPoint practice guided by the faculty learning packet. Faculty members also participated in a
group training session featuring demonstrations of PowerPoint capabilities and
were provided a learning packet. Using the scripted lessons in the learning packet
as guidelines in the one-one-one mentoring activities that followed, student
mentors and faculty members were allowed to work in their own office using
their own computer.
This model features a combination of multiple session training and
one-on-one mentoring activities to support faculty use of technology in
teaching and professional development (Smith & O’Bannon, 1999).
Not all colleges and universities have graduate program in technology
so the use of undergraduate students as technology mentors is a viable option
for some institutions (Beisser, 1997).
The University of North Texas has utilized their PT3 Capacity Building
Grant to provide technology integration mentoring during the spring of
2000. The new course “ Technology
Integration Mentoring” was designed so undergraduate students could work
one-on-one with inservice teachers in an authentic classroom environment. In
this model, undergraduate students met together three times during the semester
and communicated via a class listserv.
A class web site was set up for resource links to technology and
curriculum. The rest of the class
time was spent in a classroom paired with an inservice teacher out of their own
selection or by arrangement. The final face-to-face class meeting focused on
presentations of undergraduate students’ collaborative work with the inservice
teachers. A major characteristic
of this model is the two-way mentoring where the undergraduate students were
considered the technology experts, but they also learned classroom management
and curriculum from inservice teachers (Tyler-Wood et al, 2000).
Carson-Newman College Teacher Education Department started a mentoring
program using elementary and secondary education undergraduate students to mentor
the faculty. This model consisted
of four stages: 1) large group planning sessions, 2) small technical sessions,
3) one-on-one mentoring sessions, and 4) a final large group session for
project sharing. Students’
commitment was in the form of a one-hour course. Course requirements included
35 hours in planning and implementing large and small group sessions as well as
preparing for and meeting in one-on-one sessions with the faculty. Faculty
agreed to allocate time to meet with mentors, to share projects with other
faculty, and to participate in an evaluative interview. Elements of this
mentoring programs included one-on-one relationships, mentoring techniques
training, communication with the program director, and formal commitments of
both student mentors and faculty mentees (Milligan & Robinson, 2000).
In Canada, the University of Regina Faculty of Education initiated a
reciprocal mentoring model in which technologically skilled education students
organized workshops offered to faculty members and provided one-one-one
assistance following the workshops. As reciprocal mentors, faculty and students
worked together to learn from each other in making educational connections
utilizing the technology skills of the students and pedagogy expertise of the faculty
(Browne et al, 2000).
According to Dwyer (1998), frequent planned collaborative activities as
conducted in the form of on-the-job mentoring have the potential to facilitate
structural change in school environment and transform school cultures.
Recognizing the need for support for successful technology use in K-12
school environments, the University of Maryland collaborated with the Prince
Georges County Public Schools by establishing a computer mentoring program.
This program was designed to prepare experienced computer-using teachers to
serve as mentors for other teachers in their schools. In this case, a course “
Leadership in Computer Applications” was offered to inservice teacher mentors.
Each mentor worked with one to five mentees from his or her school. In addition
to regular meetings, mentors were available informally because they were
teaching in the same school. This
program’s purpose was to increase the knowledge of the technology-integrated
curriculum and to establish sustainable collegial relationships in K-12
environments (MacAurther et al, 1995).
Franklin et al (2001) present another model of mentoring efforts between higher education and K-12 schools. This university/K-6 partnership develops strategies to overcome barriers of technology use in schools. The pairing of instructional technology graduate students as mentors and elementary school teachers as mentees leads to the development of technology expertise and ideas for technology integration in the existing curriculum. This mentoring model provides a cost-effective way to provide professional development for teachers that have difficulty obtaining technology support for technology use.
The well-known Generation www.Y mentoring model originated in the
Olympia School District, Washington, in 1996 features the extensive involvement
of students as collaborative partners with their teachers. As the project title implies,
Generation www.Y focuses on today's new generation of youth who contribute
their technology expertise as they become leaders in bringing technology to the
classroom and the community. This
program has developed and implemented an instructional technology support model
that included the extensive and authentic involvement of secondary students
(grades 8-12). The 18-week course
teaches students technology, collaboration, and project development skills
prior to their mentoring a teacher during regular school days. These students maintain school networks
and support their teachers as they integrate technology into their
curriculum-based projects and lesson plans. It is one of the most extensive student mentoring programs
in the nation (Generation www. Y, 2001).
The University of Texas at Austin conducted project CIRCLE in
collaboration with the Austin Independent School District and the Eanes
Independent School District. This
project used technology network tools to establish an online learning alliance
within high schools and to explore innovative constructivist uses of technology
in the classroom. A virtual
learning community based on the constructivist model of learning was
established between project schools and the university for collaborative and
intellectual work. Training
sessions on how to use the specific collaborative learning tools were offered
to teachers as well as to selected student mentors. Student mentors served as on site technology mentors for
teachers and fellow students. The
findings indicate that student mentors can be an effective technology resource
and support system for teachers who are implementing new technology tools and
applications (Resta, 1998).
Different mentoring models have been adopted based on institutions’
needs to enhance technology integration throughout a teacher education program
or K-12 environments. Some models include one technology course where students
are paired with faculty members interested in using technology in their
courses. Some are pilot programs to match graduate or undergraduate students
with faculty members or inservice teachers in a reciprocal mentoring
relationship. Some offer a combination of multiple sessions and one-on-one
mentoring activities. There are other mentoring programs embedded in
large-scale projects aimed to help change teacher practice and help to
incorporate technology into the existing curriculum. Despite the variety,
successful mentoring models have common themes that are discussed in the
following section.
Despite the variety of technology mentoring models, effective programs
include common elements. These
elements clearly emerged from a careful review of the mentoring models and the
process established for each. These elements include providing visions for the
use of technology in teaching and learning, individualizing technology support
(personal fit), breaking down hierarchical structure, establishing open
dialogue and collaborative relationships, providing mutual benefits for mentors
and mentees, and establishing learning communities. The presence of these elements seems critical to
establishing and maintaining successful mentoring programs.
Educational change has proved difficult to achieve. Educators’ beliefs
either assist change in practice or inhibit innovation (Schuttloffel,
2000). According to Papert (1980),
technology provides the visionary reform in all levels of educational
institutions. However, such
educational reform cannot occur only by using one-size-fits-all models of
professional development, especially when it comes to technology
integration. In one-on-one
mentoring programs described in the literature, visions in successful
technology integration are provided through collaborative efforts among
participants. Most faculty or
inservice teacher mentees in these programs indicate that they have developed a
deeper level of understanding and a higher level of confidence in the use of
technology. One teacher mentee stated,
I think I have more confidence
about managing it all now. I had ideas about using the technology but this has
given me an opportunity to see the graduate student at work with the students,
so I know it can be done . . . even with my class (Franklin, 2001, p.28).
This in turn strengthens “their personal and teaching related use of
computers, attitudes toward educational computing, and interest in learning
more about educational technology.” (Generation www. Y 2000, Executive Summary,
p.14) One faculty metee in the
School of Education at New Mexico State University mentioned :
I
began as what can be referred to as a ‘technophobe,’ but I was lucky to receive
encouragement and support from technology professionals. I started using
computer technology as a word processor . . . I began to move more rapidly
across the bridge from personal use to uses of technology for teaching reading
(Gonzales & Thompson, 1998, p.167).
Teaching must start where the learner is (Hunt, 1961, p.268). Each
person has a unique learning curve with respect to technology. One-on-one mentoring offers
individualized technology support that is usually provided on site. Each content area requires its own creative
way to integrate technology into curricula, so it is often difficult to provide
specific content integration ideas during large group workshop sessions. Moreover, the one-on-one mentoring
programs give the mentees time to work at their own pace. The opportunity for graduate student
mentors at Iowa State University to address specific needs of faculty mentees
in their own areas of interest and pedagogical beliefs was identified as a
strength in the one-on-one mentoring program (Thompson et al, 1996). The student mentor devises his/her
instruction to fit the style, the skill level, and personal interest of the
faculty mentee. As one mentee
indicated:
Importantly,
our one-to-one mentorship provided a risk-free atmosphere to ask rudimentary
questions about files, folders, menu bars, and how an application works . . .
Eventually, he [student mentor] introduced more complex productivity tools to
present and organize information, in particular, those which would relate to my
social studies methods course . . . (Beisser et al, 1997, p. 4).
Faculty members like the fact that they have one-on-one support and their technology needs can be addressed individually and directly.
These mentoring models are typified by a lack of hierarchy
in which leadership is from within rather than from above. Instead of a top down, one-way
approach, a shared sense of common goal, opportunity, motivation and reward
between the mentor and the mentee is the prevailing mentoring paradigm among
these cases. Because of the lack of hierarchy, student mentors feel comfortable
approaching faculty members with comments and work closely with faculty to
solve problems, share knowledge and gain expertise. In most cases, mentors and mentees are able to “form not
only professional but a personal friendship, too (Beisser et al, 1997, p.325).
These technology mentoring models, unlike
traditional models in which mentors usually have “absolute authority”(
Philips-Jones, 1982), focus more on collaborative efforts. Technology as a
facilitator of hierarchical change moves institutions or schools toward a
learning community to “involve students as co-creators and co-owners of the
curriculum, who bring needed skills and resources to the table” (Generation www.Y, 2000, p. 13).
Mentoring is a very dynamic and interactive experience. It is also a
great way to promote collaboration among mentors and mentees to integrate
technology in courses. Most case
studies in mentoring programs emphasize open dialogue for both mentor and
mentee to express their feelings, knowledge, and expectations. In most models, mentors and mentees
started with a formal needs assessment like the “Individual Mentoring Plan”
(MacAuther et al, 1995, p. 50) or informally wrote up a set of goals (Thompson
et al 1996; Gonzales et al, 1997; Sprague et al, 1998). A mutual respect and trust developed
during the mentoring process as the mentor and mentee worked collaboratively to
integrate technology into curricula.
This kind of partnership often resulted in collaborative projects. In
the case of the University of North Texas model, preservice teachers (the
mentors) showcased their work with classroom teachers (the mentees) in their
final face to face class meeting (Tyler-Wood et al, 2000).
Most mentoring models are set up as a reciprocal relationship in which
the faculty mentee learns about integrating technology into their courses and
the student mentor learns more pedagogical expertise in certain fields. Because the mentoring process is
dynamic, the roles of student mentors gradually change and evolve. Therefore,
the benefits for education students as mentors include the opportunity to
establish connections with faculty members, to learn about pedagogy expertise
from them, and to better understand how faculty members can successfully
integrate technology to their courses. The faculty mentees are able to
visualize and conceptualize how technology could be used in the classroom
through the brainstorming process with help from mentor’s technology experiences
(Thompson et al, 1996; Sprague et al, 1998; Stewart, 1998; Gonzales et al;
Beisser, 2000; Browne et al, 2000).
In K-12 environments, student mentors were offered “an authentic,
multidisciplinary, project-based experience of doing valuable work . .
.teachers receive individualized support for integrating technology in their
particular classroom” (Generation www.Y, 2000, p. 13). In addition, providing students with an
authentic learning environment provides them with opportunities to practice
skills of leadership and communication.
In project CIRCLE, teachers indicated that one of the important
benefits for student mentors was the improved behavior and boost of self-esteem
for those previously labeled as “ disengaged from the learning process” (Resta,
1998, p. 6). An international student described in her case how being involved
in the mentoring program brought her a sense of belonging to the graduate
community. Mentoring program provided a chance to build connections with the
faculty members and to be engaged in authentic course development work (Chuang,
2001).
Learning communities established by mentoring relationships encourage
collaboration, communication, and team work and provide on-going support in
both technology and pedagogy for both mentors and mentees. Learning communities emerging from a
nurturing and supportive environment allow members to exchange ideas, share
experiences, and learn together to accommodate individual learning styles
(Stephen & Evans, 2000). In these mentoring models, learning communities exist
within the mentors’ group, between mentors and mentees, and in the alliance of
participating institutions of the mentoring programs.
The structure of the mentoring communities is not linear or
hierarchical. Instead, these communities are asymmetric and connected by
interaction and collaboration. In models where mentoring occurs as the
field component of a course, learning communities are built on means of
communication, such as listserve, e-mailing, and face-to-face regular meetings
(MacArthur et al, 1995; Thompson et al,1996; Sprague et al, 1998). Mentors get in touch with other peer
mentors and share experience and find solutions for technical and pedagogical
problems within these learning communities. At New Mexico State University, one of the participating
faculty members felt that “being a part of a faculty
mentoring team usually developed a sense of belonging to the broader community
of those committed to using educational technology” (Gonzales & Thompson,
1998). Historically, K-12 teachers
tend to be isolated from their peers so developing a learning community
among teachers through mentoring programs is particularly important. This is
also the emerging theme found in the extended mentoring models to K-12
environments (MacAurther et al, 1995).
Most one-on-one mentoring programs have been successfully providing
faculty in higher education and teachers in K-12 environments with expertise
and support they need to use and integrate technology. Characteristics such as
providing visions, individualizing technology support, breaking down
hierarchical structure, establishing open dialogue and collaborative
relationships, and providing mutual benefits for mentors and mentees are important
parts of most successful models. In addition, successful programs tend to
emphasize the creation of learning communities among and between mentors and
mentees. The characteristics of successful mentoring programs described in this
paper should provide a useful framework for educators who are or will be
implementing mentoring programs.
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