Ekkekakis, P. (in press). Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise. Cognition and Emotion.

The affective changes associated with acute exercise have been studied extensively in exercise and health psychology, but not in affective psychology. This paper presents a summary of the relevant findings and a tentative theoretical model. According to this model, affective responses to exercise are jointly influenced by cognitive factors, such as physical self-efficacy, and interoceptive (e.g., muscular or respiratory) cues that reach the affective centers of the brain via subcortical routes. Furthermore, the balance between these two determinants is hypothesized to shift as a function of exercise intensity, with cognitive factors being dominant at low intensities and interoceptive cues gaining salience as intensity approaches the individual's functional limits and the maintenance of a physiological steady-state becomes impossible. [Online]

Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2002). Biofeedback in exercise psychology. In B. Blumenstein, & M. Bar-Eli (Eds.), Brain and body in sport and exercise: Biofeedback application in performance enhancement (pp. 77-100). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.

The field of exercise psychology faces the great challenge of having to develop conceptual models to help understand exercise behavior and intervention methods for increasing exercise participation and long-term adherence. One mechanism that is likely to influence exercise behavior but has received relatively little attention is one that attributes a critical role to the intensity of exercise and its effects on the quality of the experience that participants derive from their involvement in exercise. On the one hand, if the intensity of exercise is too low, the possibility of substantial health and fitness benefits is reduced, increasing the likelihood of dropout due to frustration stemming from unfulfilled expectations. On the other hand, if the intensity of exercise is too high (according to accumulating evidence, if it exceeds the point of transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism), most individuals report feeling progressively worse and rate the intensity as "hard." Over time, such unpleasant experiences may lead to an aversion for exercise, again raising the possibility of dropout. The conclusion that emerges is that the accurate self-monitoring and self-regulation of exercise intensity could have a significant impact on subsequent exercise behavior by influencing the quality of the experience that individuals derive from exercise. In this context, biofeedback can prove to be a powerful tool for teaching exercisers to maintain the delicate balance between exercise intensity that is effective on the one hand and pleasant or tolerable and safe on the other. The studies on the effects of biofeedback in the context of exercise are not many, but have consistently demonstrated that even as few as four or five sessions of biofeedback training can attenuate the exercise-induced increases in physiological activation without reducing the amount of work being performed. From an applied standpoint, it is also important that these effects seem to be the results of improved efficiency in physiological function, as there have been no indications of negative side-effects, such as compensatory physiological adjustments. Although the extant evidence supports the use of biofeedback in practice, research should continue and its scope should be expanded, placing emphasis on the use of non-cardiovascular (e.g., ventilatory, blood lactate, etc.) biofeedback modes, the linkage of biofeedback to exertional and affective experiences, and the investigation of the content, the verbal descriptors, and the dimensionality of such experiences. [Online]

Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (1999). Acute aerobic exercise and affect: Current status, problems and prospects regarding dose-response. Sports Medicine, 28 (5), 337-374.

One of the assumptions underlying recent physical activity recommendations is that lower doses of activity (i.e. intensity and duration) are more enjoyable for the average person, thus leading to higher involvement and adherence rates. However, the veracity of this hypothesis can be questioned, since little is actually known regarding the association between activity doses and affective responses. The few preliminary attempts at the conceptual delineation of the dose-response relationship, all centred around an 'inverted-U' notion, are reviewed and criticised as lacking empirical foundation. Available meta-analyses, as well as the empirical literature on the role of exercise intensity and duration, are examined. Increased intensity appears to be associated with reduced positivity of affect during and immediately following an exercise bout. Intensity effects appear to be attenuated during recovery. Fitness and training status appear to become significant mediators of the exercise-affect relationship only at high intensities. With intensity being kept constant, different exercise bout durations have not been shown to have a differential impact on pre- to post-exercise affective changes. Recommendations for future research include: (i) a shift from categorical to dimensional conceptualisations and operationalisations of affect; (ii) the examination of psychological theories on the association between activation and affect (e.g. extraversion-introversion, sensation seeking, type A behaviour pattern and related self-evaluative tendencies, reversal theory, optimal stimulation theory, multidimensional activation theory and self-efficacy); (iii) the systematic and theory-based examination of in-task and post-exercise affective responses; (iv) the incorporation of the parameter of fitness and/or activity status in research designs; and (v) the re-evaluation of methods for selecting exercise intensity levels. [Online]

Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E.E., Van Landuyt, L.M., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2000). Walking in (affective) circles: Can short walks enhance affect? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 23 (3), 245-275.

Recent physical activity recommendations call for activities that are of moderate intensity and can be performed intermittently during the day, such as walking. These proclamations were based partly on the assumption that moderate activities are generally more enjoyable than physically demanding ones, and they are, therefore, also more likely to be continued over the long haul. However, little is actually known about the affective outcomes of short bouts of walking and extant findings are equivocal. Four experimental studies examined the affective responses associated with short (10- to 15-min) bouts of walking using a dimensional conceptual model of affect, namely, the circumplex. Results consistently showed that walking was associated with shifts toward increased activation and more positive affective valence. Recovery from walking for 10-15 min was associated with a return toward calmness and relaxation. This pattern was robust across different self-report measures of the circumplex affective dimensions, across ecological settings (field and laboratory), across time, and across samples. [Online]

Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E.E., & Petruzzello, S.J. (1999). Measuring state anxiety in the context of acute exercise using the State Anxiety Inventory: An attempt to resolve the brouhaha. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21 (3), 205-229.

Two studies were conducted to examine the internal consistency and validity of the state anxiety subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (SAI) in the context of acute exercise. SAI responses typically found in the exercise literature were replicated. Analysis at the item level revealed divergent response patterns, confounding the total SAI score. During moderate and immediately after vigorous exercise, scores on items referring to cognitive antecedents of anxiety decreased, whereas scores on items assessing perceived activation increased. Indices of internal consistency showed exercise-associated decreases. A principal-components analysis of responses immediately postexercise revealed a multidimensional structure, distinguishing "cognitive" and "activation" items. By failing to discern exercise-induced and anxiety-unrelated increases in activation from anxiety-antecedent appraisals, the SAI exhibits compromised internal consistency and validity in the context of acute exercise. [Online]

Van Landuyt, L.M., Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E.E., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2000). Throwing the mountains into the lakes: On the perils of nomothetic conceptions of the exercise-affect relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 22 (3), 208-234.

Traditional conceptions of the exercise-affect relationship postulate that moderate-intensity exercise leads to positive affective changes in all or most individuals, and it can, therefore, be prescribed for all individuals involved in exercise programs. This study investigated whether this assumption is true, not only at the level of group averages but also at the level of individuals. Affect was assessed before, during, and after a session of moderate-intensity cycle ergometry using a dimensional conceptualization of affect. Examination of individual responses revealed a diversity of patterns that was masked by aggregate-based analyses. Mean ratings of affective valence were shown to remain stable during exercise, but in actuality almost half of the individuals experienced progressive improvement, whereas the other half experienced progressive deterioration. The diversity of individual affective responses must be taken into account in formulating conceptual models of the exercise-affect relationship and deriving public health physical activity recommendations. [Online]

Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2000). Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: I. Fundamental issues. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 1 (2), 71-88.

Background and purpose: The measurement of affect in the context of exercise is a controversial issue. The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical review of the relevant literature and to outline a conceptual framework that will serve as the basis for subsequent analysis. Methods: Four issues are discussed: (a) the distinctions between emotions, moods, and affect; (b) the strengths and weaknesses of categorical and dimensional models for conceptualizing affective phenomena; (c) the notion of "exercise-specific" affect; and (d) whether measurement should be based on a deductive or an inductive approach. Results and conclusions: Arguments are presented in favor of (a) targeting basic affect as the appropriate object of assessment at the present stage of knowledge development; (b) adopting dimensional models because of their broad and balanced scope; (c) critically reconsidering the notion of "exercise-specific" affect; and (d) using deductive methods for measuring affect.

Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2001). Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: II. A conceptual and methodological critique of the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 2 (1), 1-26.

Background and purpose: The measurement of affect in the context of exercise has become a controversial issue. To help elucidate some of the problems, the conceptual and methodological bases of the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory (EFI; Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993) are critiqued, emphasizing deviations from established scale development and validation guidelines. Methods: From a conceptual standpoint, the analysis concentrates on the definition of "feeling states," the demarcation of the content domain, the decision to adopt a categorical conceptualization of affect, the notion of a universal phenomenology of exercise, and the notion of exercise-specific affect. From a methodological standpoint, emphasis is placed on the item selection and content validation methods, the exploratory structural analysis, and the application of structural equation modeling. Results and conclusions: Substantial deficiencies in conceptual groundwork and deviations from established guidelines are identified that may have important implications for the validity and utility of the EFI.

Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2001). Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: III. A conceptual and methodological critique of the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 2 (4), 205-232.

Background and purpose. The general purpose of this series is to examine the controversy that surrounds the measurement of affect in the context of acute exercise. The present paper focuses on the conceptual underpinnings and the methodological steps that were followed in the development of an increasingly popular measure, namely the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES) (J Sport Exercise Psychol, 16 (1994) 163). Emphasis is placed on how conceptual ambiguities may influence methodological decisions and, ultimately, the content and structure of a measure. Methods. From a conceptual standpoint, attention is given to the delineation and demarcation of the content domain of the scale, the decision to adopt a dimensional conceptualization of affect, the notion of subjective experiences unique to exercise, and, mainly, whether positive and negative affect are independent constructs or the opposite ends of a single bipolar dimension. From a methodological standpoint, the analysis focuses on the process of item selection and content validation, and the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Results and conclusions. Conceptual and empirical evidence is reviewed suggesting that: (a) there is ambiguity regarding the nature and the limits of the content domain of the SEES; (b) the notion of subjective experiences unique to exercise presents considerable logical problems; and (c) positive and negative affect are not necessarily independent constructs. In conclusion, the analysis underscores the importance of conceptual groundwork and clarity as prerequisites for methodological implementation.

Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2002). Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: IV. A conceptual case for the affect circumplex. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 3 (1), 35-63.

Background and purpose: In previous articles in this 4-part series, we presented an analysis of some of the main problems surrounding the measurement of affect in exercise psychology. The purpose of the present paper is to integrate this experience into a proposed solution by presenting arguments in support of the circumplex model of affect. Methods: The circumplex model is considered a suitable solution because (a) it targets the broadest concept in the affective hierarchy, namely basic affect, (b) as a dimensional model, it offers unparalleled breadth of scope and parsimony, (c) it is domain-general, thus not likely to produce assessments that are biased against or in favor of a certain treatment, and (d) it is based on specific conceptual postulates, thus allowing a deductive approach to measurement. The basic assumptions of the circumplex model are discussed, the available circumplex-based self-report measures are reviewed, and a series of applied studies in the context of acute exercise are summarized. Results and conclusions: Two important caveats are emphasized: (a) the measurement of the circumplex dimensions presents certain unique challenges which advances in statistical modeling should soon address and (b) the circumplex should not be seen as a panacea for all types of research contexts as its strength lies mainly in its parsimony, not its specificity. Provided that these points are taken into consideration, the circumplex model can offer a useful framework for conceptualizing and assessing the effects of acute exercise on the affective domain.

Hall, E.E., Ekkekakis, P., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2002). The affective beneficence of vigorous exercise revisited. British Journal of Health Psychology, 7 (1), 47-66.

Objectives: High exercise intensity may be associated with reduced adherence to exercise programs, possibly because it is perceived as aversive. However, several authors have suggested that an intensity as high as 60% or 70% of maximal aerobic capacity (VO₂max) is necessary for exercise to elicit positive affective changes. To elucidate this discrepancy, the affective responses to increasing levels of exercise intensity were examined. Design: Thirty volunteers rated their affect every min as they ran on a treadmill while the speed and grade were progressively increased. Methods: The methodology was unique in three respects: (a) affect was assessed in terms of the dimensions of the circumplex model instead of distinct affective states, (b) affect was assessed repeatedly before, during, and after exercise, not only before and after, and (c) exercise intensity was standardized across participants in terms of metabolically comparable phases (beginning, ventilatory threshold, VO₂max) instead of percentages of maximal capacity. Results: Pre-to-post-exercise comparisons indicated affective benefits in the form of increased energetic arousal and decreased tense arousal. During exercise, however, affective valence deteriorated beyond the ventilatory threshold and until VO₂max, a trend that reversed itself instantaneously during cool-down. Conclusions: Exercise intensity that requires a transition to anaerobic metabolism can have a transient but substantial negative impact on affect and this may, in turn, reduce adherence to exercise programs.

Acevedo, E.O., & Ekkekakis, P. (2001). The transactional psychobiological nature of cognitive appraisal during exercise in environmentally stressful conditions. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 2 (1), 47-67.

Background and purpose: Successful adaptation to the stress of physical exertion in adverse environmental conditions (heat, cold, high altitude) is of great concern when optimal performance within safe parameters is the goal. The perception of the psychophysical demands imposed by the stressful situation and the perceived capability to cope with these demands is a process that can dramatically alter the intensity of the ensuing physiological activation. Thus, exercise in environmentally stressful conditions provides an excellent model for examining the relationship between the cognitive appraisal of the physical stress and the ensuing stress response. A brief review of the research on cognitive appraisals during exercise in stressful environments provides evidence of the connection between cognitive appraisals and the stress response during exercise under environmental stress and demonstrates a need for a transactional psychobiological model proposed in this paper. This model attributes a central role to the continuous cognitive appraisal of the situation by the individual. Methods: Computer searches of psychological, sport science, and medical databases using the terms exercise, heat, cold, altitude, environmental stress, and ratings of perceived exertion were conducted. Additionally, the reference citations in the obtained articles were searched for relevant studies. An abridged integrated review summarizes the critical findings and limitations. Furthermore, literature supporting the proposed transactional psychobiological model is presented. Results and conclusions: Further investigation into the psychophysical and the affective responses to exercise in adverse environmental conditions can be facilitated through the utilization of the proposed transactional psychobiological model.

Hall, E.E., Ekkekakis, P., Van Landuyt, L.M., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2000). Resting frontal asymmetry predicts self-selected walking speed but not affective responses to a short walk. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71 (1), 74-79.

Resting frontal electroencephalograph (EEG) asymmetry is thought to reflect approach and withdrawal motivational systems and the propensity to experience positive and negative affect associated with each system, respectively. The present study examined whether resting frontal EEG asymmetry (a) would predict affective responses to a 10-min walk and (b) would be related to self-selected walking speed, an index of approach-related behavior, during the walk. Forty-two college-aged students (19 females and 23 males) participated in the study. EEG and affect were assessed before, immediately following and 15 min post-walk. Walking speed was documented at the 5th and 10th min of exercise. Each participant visited the laboratory on two occasions and performed the same protocol on each day. Resting frontal EEG asymmetry was unable to predict post-walk affect. However, it was related to self-selected walking speed on each day. The inability of frontal EEG asymmetry to predict affective responses to a short walk is consistent with a conceptual model, whereby frontal asymmetry is a significant predictor of affective responses only to doses of exercise that are high enough to present a significant challenge to the individual. The finding that frontal asymmetry was related to self-selected walking speed was the first known demonstration that frontal asymmetry is associated with a behavioral manifestation of approach motivation.

Petruzzello, S.J., Hall, E.E., & Ekkekakis, P. (2001). Regional brain activation as a biological marker of affective responsivity to acute exercise: Influence of fitness. Psychophysiology, 38 (1), 99-106.

Previous research has shown that regional brain activation, assessed via frontal EEG asymmetry, predicts affective responsivity to aerobic exercise. To replicate and extend this work, the present study examined whether resting brain activation was associated with affective responses to an acute bout of aerobic exercise and the extent to which aerobic fitness mediated this relationship. Participants (High-Fit; n=22, Low/Moderate-Fit; n=45) ran on a treadmill for 30 min @ 75% VO₂max. EEG and affect were assessed pre- and 0, 10, 20, and 30 min postexercise. Resting EEG asymmetry predicted positive affect (as measured by the Energetic Arousal subscale of the AD ACL) postexercise. Furthermore, resting frontal EEG asymmetry predicted affect only in the High-Fit group, suggesting the effect might be mediated by some factor related to fitness. It was also shown that subjects with relatively greater left frontal activation had significantly greater Energy (i.e., activated pleasant affect) following exercise than subjects with relatively greater right frontal activation. In conclusion, aerobic fitness influenced the relationship between resting frontal asymmetry and exercise-related affective responsivity.